Year One Ba-Hons Photography Image Analysis

Photographs are one of the media or instruments of visual representations. It is an embodiment of visual elements which appear as symbols and are linked together to convey several meanings. According to McLean (1973), they are pictures which have many characteristics and attributes in common with other images (quoted in Noth 1995: 461). They play an important role, along with film, in broadening the visual field for examination and analysis and in molding critical approaches to visual representation (Chaplin 1994: 80). This paper aims to present an image analysis of Nick Ut’s Trang Bang (1972). It will narrate a brief biography of the artist then it will reveal the photograph’s visual elements and their corresponding meanings. It will also identify the underlying symbols behind the image and demonstrate their impact on the society. Furthermore, it endeavors to express and to show the implication of photographs with regards to visual culture and visual literacy. Nick Ut (b. March 29, 1951- ) whose real name is Ut Cong Huynh is a Vietnamese photographer. His photography career begins when he has been introduced by his mother to the Associated Press office in Saigon; he is 14 years old then. The occurrence on the rainy day of the 8th of June, 1972, the epoch when the Americans and South Vietnamese invaded Cambodia, draws attention with his career when he shoots Kim Phuc—a nine year old girl—running and blaring naked in down Route 1 (Ut 2007); the photograph is entitled as T rang Bang. Trang Bang, a gelatin silver print, depicts the June 8, 1972 event when the children and their families run away and flee the village of Trang Bang down Route 1; their bodies are being burned and seared by napalm (Faas and Fulton n. d. ). The image encompasses five children that are running and screaming and behind them are militant troops, walking after the terrified kids. The focus of the picture is the naked little girl who is squealing. Figure 1 Children Fleeing an American Napalm Strike, Trang Bang, June 8, 1972 Her stretched arms bestow a line element in the image which illustrates balance and symmetry. The eyes of the spectator will usually fix on the dead center due to the strong and powerful expression of Kim Phuc, revealing an excruciating pain. Nevertheless, if the focus of the picture will be given to the screaming boy on the foreground whom is said to be Kim Phuc’s brother Phan Thanh Tam, technically speaking, Ut demonstrates the rule of thirds in his masterpiece due to his manipulation to the placement of the subject which is off the center; therefore the eyes of the spectator will definitely turn and fix with the other elements in the whole picture per se. He also displays a shallow depth of field in the photograph because only the subjects of interest or focus are enhanced—the shrieking and running children, the other element—the troops—is quite out of focus due to the blurry details of the figures. The black smoke on the background gives a strong contrast in the picture. The said photograph is a historical account that records and synthesizes the incident of June 1972. It analyzes and demonstrates the notion of horror and agony during wars which can be pulled out from the facial expressions of the children especially Phan Thanh Tam’s. He summarizes and encapsulates the terror, fear and affliction of the people during the Vietnam War (Pyle 2000). That image can imply a lot of things if it will be based to John Berger’s Way of Seeing theory (1972): it is seeing which establishes our place in the surrounding world; we explain that world with words, but words can never undo the fact that we are surrounded by it. The way we see things is affected by what we know or what we believe (Berger 1972: 7-8). With that, it can be hauled that whatever the interpretation or analysis of the spectators with the image, it will still be anchored on what he or she knows regarding the event that has transpired in Vietnam during the year 1972. The photograph is a representation of the reality that it portrays (Noth 1997: 46). However, Eco (1984) disagrees because according to him, a photograph can lie (quoted in Noth 1997: 461), by which Berger (1984) states that the result of the treatment and manipulation of the reality is that to a definite level, â€Å"the photographer creates the reality of the photograph (quoted in Noth: 461). Nevertheless, in the case of Nick Ut’s Trang Bang, it cannot be implied that the photographer has altered and manipulated the reality that he has documented during the occurrence in 1972 because the reproduction of the image, which have been placed in newspapers, magazines, etc. , creates a different perspective from the original photo that is taken by Ut. The reproduction delineates a cropped image of the original (Look at figure 1 and 2). Figure 2 Napalm Bomb Attack, Vietnam It shows that the original, which has been signed by Ut, encompasses other elements in the picture, for instance, the official member of the press who looks like fixing his camera, the lines on the background which probably signifies the napalm. The manipulated image appears more closely to the spectators and constructs a more focused representation of the event. Because of the reproductions, Ut cannot be blamed for the cropped photo because of the intervention of the press with regards to the dissemination of the image to narrate the historical event. It is definitely the press’ responsibility as to how they will broadcast and transmit the information with wide, visual consumers all over the world. According to Gillian Rose in her Visual Methodologies (2001), the novelty and advantage of photography branch out from its most evident potential: it is about rendering that particular moment in time (quoted Mirzoeff 1999: 67) by which Ut demonstrates in his Trang Bang. In accordance with what he said during an interview, â€Å"the girl was running with her arms out. She was crying, ‘nong qua! Nong qua! (Too hot! Too hot! ). She had torn off all her clothes. When I saw she was burned, I dropped my camera beside the road. I knew I had a good picture. I got her into our van and took her and the family to the Cu Chi hospital. † (quoted in Pyle 2000). Moreover, his magnum opus implies that photography makes achievable ways of seeing what is unimaginable then (Mirzoeff 1999: 68). It does illustrate that the language and expression of the photograph is to combine naturalism and realism. The artifact then evolves to be reality (quoted Molyneaux 1997: 80). Nick Ut’s Trang Bang may be manipulated or not, it still conveys a scheme of meanings and symbols. The implication of an image is created from an interaction of a myriad of schemes and codes. A photograph is not a realistic illustration of what is real in spite of its appearances. It is a material that has been produced in an elaborate manner and approach of production and has been dispensed, circulated and consumed by a set of social relations (Forrester 1996: 140). Burgin (1982) has argued then that a photograph presents itself as something that cannot be disagreed with in which he states as â€Å"an offer you cannot refuse† (quoted in Forrester 1996: 142). Trang Bang being an object of representation communicates with its spectator about the Vietnam War that happens in mid-1972. Nick Ut, as one of the war photographers, has to deal with the lack of viewing space for his work because he is confined and restricted to what he sees in the lens compared to other artists who can demonstrate an array of symbols and emotionally-driven and affecting scenes however, war photographers are offered with revolutionizing and altering the reality into an allegorical and symbolic masterpieces (Marien 2006: 46).

The Hunters: Moonsong Chapter Thirty-Seven

Ethan had Chloe, was holding her tightly in his arms like a parody of a lover's embrace. Matt moaned deep in his throat and strained toward her, but he couldn't move, couldn't even open his mouth to shout. Chloe's large brown eyes were fixed on his, and they were fil ed with terror. As Ethan bent his head to her neck, Matt held her gaze and tried to send Chloe a comforting message with his eyes. It's okay, Chloe, he thought. Please, it won't hurt for long. Be strong. Chloe whimpered, frozen, her eyes on Matt's as if his steady gaze was the only thing keeping her from fal ing to pieces. Keeping his eyes on hers and his breathing slow, Matt tried to emanate calmness, tried to soothe Chloe, as his mind worked frantical y. Including Ethan, there were fifteen Vitales. Al of them vampires. The other Vitales were watching quietly from behind the altar, letting Ethan take the lead and sire the pledges. The bodies of four of the pledges lay at Ethan's feet now. They'd be out of the picture for several hours at least, their bodies going through the transition that would take them from corpses to vampires. Including Matt and Chloe, there were six pledges left. The longer Matt waited to fight back, the worse the odds would get. But what could Matt do? If only he could break this involuntary stil ness, if only he weren't a helpless prisoner. He tried again to move, this time focusing al his strength on lifting his right arm. His muscles tensed with effort, but after about thirty seconds of trying, he stopped in disgust. He was exhausting himself, and he wasn't moving an inch. Whatever held him was strong. But if he could figure out a way to get free, then he'd be able to grab a torch from the wal , maybe. Beneath his robe, his pocket knife weighed heavily in his pants pocket. Vampires burned. Cutting off their heads would kil them. If he could just hold the vampires off long enough to pul Chloe and whichever other pledges he could grab out of the room, then he could come back later with reinforcements and fight them with a chance at winning. But if he couldn't break this spel or compulsion that was holding him in place, any plan he came up with would be useless. Ethan raised his head from Chloe's neck, his long sharp teeth pul ing out of her throat, and licked gently at the red blood trickling from the wound in her neck. â€Å"I know, sweetheart,† he murmured, â€Å"but it's only for a moment. And then we'l live forever.† Chloe's eyes glazed over and fluttered shut, but she was stil breathing, stil alive. There was stil a chance for her. At Ethan's feet, Anna stirred and moaned. As Matt watched in horror, her eyes snapped open, and she looked up at Ethan, her expression confused but adoring. No! Matt thought. It's too soon! As if he had caught the thought, Ethan turned to Matt and winked. â€Å"The herbs in the mixture you al drank worked to thin your blood and speed up your metabolism,† he said, his voice as casual and friendly as if they were chatting in the cafeteria. â€Å"I wasn't sure if it would work, but it looks like it does. Makes the transition go a lot faster.† His smile widened. â€Å"I'm a biochem major, you know.† Ethan's mouth was smeared with blood, and Matt shuddered but couldn't look away from the golden eyes that held his. It's possible, Matt thought for the first time, that I might not survive this. His stomach rol ed with nausea. He real y didn't want to become a vampire. If the newly transformed pledges were waking up so soon, the already slim odds would quickly become impossible. New vampires, he remembered from Elena's transformation back in the winter, awoke vicious, unreasoning, hungry, and fanatical y committed to the vampire who had changed them. Ethan lowered his head to bite at Chloe's neck again, as Anna climbed to her feet with a fluid, inhuman grace. On the other side of the altar, Stuart was now beginning to stir, one long leg shifting restlessly against the dark wood of the floor. His throat burning with unvoiced sobs of frustration, Matt felt his last flame of hope begin to flicker and die. There was no escape. Suddenly, the door at the far end of the chamber burst inward, and Stefan swept in. Ethan looked up in surprise, but before he or the other vampires could move, Stefan flew across the chamber and ripped Chloe from Ethan's arms. She fel flat in front of the altar, blood running down her neck. Matt couldn't tel if she was stil breathing, stil clinging to life as a human, or not. Stefan grabbed Ethan by his long robe and slammed him against the wal . He shook the curly-haired vampire as easily as a dog might shake a rat. For a moment, the terrible fear that held Matt in its grip loosened. Stefan knew what was happening, Stefan had found him. Stefan would save them al . The other Vitales were racing toward Stefan now as he struggled with Ethan, their long robes flowing behind them as they smoothly came forward, moving as one. Stefan was without a doubt much stronger than any of them. He flung a black-clad female vampire – the one who had handed him the goblet, Matt thought – away from him easily, and she sailed across the chamber as if she was no heavier than a rag dol , landing in a crumpled heap against the opposite wal . Smiling viciously, Stefan tore at the throat of another with his teeth, and she fel to the ground and lay stil . But there were so many of them, and only one of Stefan. After just a few minutes of watching the fight, Matt could see that it was hopeless, and his heart sank. Stefan was much older, and much stronger, than any other vampire in the room, but together they outweighed him. The tide of the battle was turning, and they were overwhelming him through the sheer strength of their numbers. Ethan was free of him now, straightening his robes, and four of the Vitale vampires, working together, pinned Stefan's arms behind him. Anna, her eyes shining, snapped at him viciously. Ethan grabbed a torch from the wal behind him and eyed Stefan speculatively, absently licking at the blood on the back of his hand. â€Å"You had your chance, Stefan,† he said, smiling. Stefan stopped struggling and hung limp between the vampires holding his arms. â€Å"Wait,† he said, looking up at Ethan. â€Å"You wanted me to join you. You begged me to join you. Do you stil want me?† Ethan tilted his head thoughtful y, his golden eyes bright. â€Å"I do,† he said. â€Å"But what can you tel me that'l make me believe you want to join us?† Stefan licked his lips. â€Å"Let Matt go. If you let him leave safely, I'l stay in his place.† He paused. â€Å"On my honor.† â€Å"Done,† Ethan said immediately. He flicked his fingers in the air without taking his eyes from Stefan, and Matt staggered, suddenly released from the compulsion that had held him in place. Matt sucked in one long breath and then ran straight for the altar and Chloe. Maybe it wasn't too late. He could stil save her. â€Å"Stop.† Ethan's voice cracked commandingly across the room. Matt froze in place, once again unable to move. Ethan glared at him. â€Å"You do not help. You do not fight,† he said coldly. â€Å"You go.† Matt looked imploringly at Stefan. Surely he wasn't just supposed to leave, to abandon Chloe and Stefan and the others to the Vitale vampires. Stefan gazed back at him, his features rigid. â€Å"Sorry, Matt,† he said flatly. â€Å"The one thing I've learned over the years is that sometimes you have to surrender. The best thing you can do now is just leave. I'l be okay.† And then, jarringly intrusive and sudden in Matt's head was Stefan's voice. Damon, he said fiercely. Get Damon. Matt gulped and, as Ethan's compulsion released him once more, nodded slowly, trying to look defeated while stil signaling to Stefan with his eyes that his message had been received. He couldn't look at the other pledges. No matter how much he hurried, some or al of them would die before he returned. Maybe Stefan would be able to save some of them. Maybe. Maybe he would be able to save Chloe. His heart pounding with terror, his head spinning with fear, Matt ran for the exit and for help. He didn't look back.

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Compare two computers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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For the Love of the Game Essay Example for Free

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Strawson Has Shown Russells Theory Of Definite Descriptions Philosophy Essay

Strawson Has Shown Russells Theory Of Definite Descriptions Philosophy Essay Sir Peter Strawsons ironically titled paper of 1950 On Referring argues that expressions do not refer in themselves but rather people refer when using expressions.(Lycan, 2008:20) Influenced by Wittgensteins Use Theories, Strawson did not consider a sentence to hold a truth value in its abstraction but rather it is in virtue of the way in which Human Beings utter and react to the sentence that give it the attribute of truthfulness and as such he considered his theory to be more adaptable than Russells Theory of Definite Descriptions in regard to ordinary language use. (Austin, 1978:531) In this essay I will critically analyse Peter Strawsons argument in relation to Bertrand Russells theory with the intention of demonstrating that Strawsons position on ordinary language is unsubstantiated and that the consequences of his language model has deeper philosophical implications which marks his theory, not Russells, as untenable. I will initially outline Russells argument in the light of St rawsons critique of the Theory of Descriptions to determine the flaws it uncovers in Russells theory. I will then attempt to offer Strawsons alternative theory through his objections to the Theory of Descriptions, to prove that his attempt to justify his theory as less problematic to the use of ordinary language is misguided. I will then finally attempt to engage in Keith Donnellans solution to consider whether it proposes a more successful and balanced approach to Russells and Strawsons theoretical problems of meaning and reference. The most efficient model for demonstrating the dilemma concerning Russell and Strawson is through Russells famous example; The present king of France is bald (Russell, 1905:485) This sentence appears to be of a subject predicate form with the grammatical subject present king of France forming the denoting phrase that Russell profoundly analysed in his paper of 1905 On Denoting. Russell proposed that there are three types of denoting phrases, however for the context of this essay I will deal exclusively with those denoting phrases that denote a single definite person or object also known as definite description akin to present king of France above. According to Russell declarative sentences of the structure of (1)do not possess the object represented by the grammatical subject in the sentence but rather conceal the more complex existential expression in virtue of their logical structure; there is one and only one x that is y, with x representing the grammatical subject and y representing the predicate. It is when the expression is altered into logical form that Russell makes the distinction between the logical subject and the grammatical subject of the sente nce which he proposes as the solution to the puzzles of non-referring definite descriptions. (Morris, 2007:51) So if we convert (1) into formal logic; 2) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã†â€™x(F(x) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€š ¬y(F(y) à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ x=y) G(x)) (Ludlow 2007) Russell proposes that in instances at least of denoting phrases being the grammatical subject of the sentence, the misunderstanding that leads to the puzzles occurs in virtue of the denoting phrase being an incomplete symbol on logical analysis. (Perkins, 1972:201)This is deceptive in that it is not obvious in ordinary language and as such it is in fact x that is the logical subject of the sentence. Consequently Russell contends that denoting phrases never have meaning in themselves, but that every proposition whose verbal expression they occur has meaning.'(Russell, 1905:480) In other words whilst the sentence (1) may appear to be of a subject -predicate form, it is in fact not in virtue of the logical proposition concealing the quantifier of the expression and subsequently Russell argues that the denoting phrase contributes meaning above its referent in that it is not actually a singular term but a quantificational structure. (Lycan, 2008:14) With this in mind, if we analyse the co mplex existential claim asserted by the definite article the in (1) a)(à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã†â€™x)Fx b)(â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¢x)( Fx à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Gx) (Fy à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ y= x)) c)(â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¢x)( Fx à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Gx) (Lycan, 2008:14) It is necessarily the case that each condition needs to be satisfied in order for the proposition to be true, however in this instance condition (a) is false in virtue of nothing in the world satisfying the condition of being the present king of France and consequently conditions (b) and (c) cannot be satisfied . As a result of uncovering this logical structure it is evident that the grammatical subject in these classes of sentences are not singular terms in so much as the king does not feature in the logical form of (1) and as such denoting phrases cannot hold meaning independent of the proposition . Russell argues that this demonstrates how it is possible for sentences that express a non-referring denoting phrase to be meaningful and hold a truth value despite not referring. (Russell, 1905:484) Conversely Strawson contended that the statement was not false but rather devoid of truth value in that it misfired in its attempt to refer, and further argues that this mistake occurs in virtue of Russells disregard to the distinction between uniquely referring expressions, that which mentions or refers to some individual person or single object, (Strawson, 1950: 324) and a sentence beginning with such an expression. He formulates the distinction between the expression itself, a use and utterance and similarly a sentence, its use and utterance. (Strawson, 1950: 325) If we reconsider example (1), and suppose that it is uttered once during the reign of Louis XIV and once during the reign of Louis XV, in this instance the same sentence has been uttered on two difference occasions of use (Strawson, 1950:327) and it would be logical to admit that it was uttered about different men and as such the statement asserted could either be true or false on either occasion. That is the man who utt ered it during the reign of Louis XIV may have been true in virtue of the King being bald whilst the other man may have been incorrect in asserting such a statement. Subsequently it is clear that the same sentence can be used differently on two different occasions of the utterance. Furthermore, if the same sentence (1) had been uttered concurrently during the reign of Louis XIV, then it could be said that the same sentence had been used to express the same statement to the extent that as a result of successful reference to a present king of France the statement must necessarily hold a truth value, however the utterances of sentence (1) would have been different. (Strawson, 1950: 328) Therefore it must be the case, on the evidence presented, that it is possible to use the same sentences to make different statements with altering truth values, and it is in virtue of not recognising the distinction between sentences and expressions and their uses that Russell does not appreciate that i t is only through the token use (Cohen,2008:1) of a sentence that one can make a statement and similarly through the use of an expression or sentence that one can refer to a particular person through context laid out by the statement made and as such an (Lemmon,1966:90) Expressions cannot be used to mention, or to refer to, anything, any more than a sentence can be said to be true or false. The same expression can have different mentioning uses, as the same sentence can be used to make statements with different truth values.mentioning is not something an expression does, it is something that someone can use an expression to do. (Strawson 1950: 327) Accordingly, Strawson concludes that just as the use of a sentence generates the truth value of a statement, referring or mentioning is the function of the use of an expression or sentence in that it is the speaker who uses the expression or sentence that refers and therefore it is illogical to speak of the same things about sentences their uses and utterances and about unique referring expressions their uses and utterances for they belong to different categories. (Lemmon, 1966:91) So if we again reconsider; The present king of France is bald (Russell, 1905:485) From the distinctions demonstrated in On Referring Strawson challenges Russells assertion that this statement is false. He argues that as a result of Russell confusing expressions with their use in a particular context (Strawson, 1950: 326) it appears that the sentences appear meaningful and false. However as for mentioned, Strawson considers that whilst the sentence itself holds meaning it is the token use of the sentence on a particular occasion that alters the sentence into a statement which holds truth value.(Cohen, 2008:3) Consequently Strawson argues that in virtue of (1) being a sentence in itself that it is in fact meaningful in so much as it provides general direction for use, however since any present token use of it does not refer then it is not false but rather lacks truth value in so much as it misfires in its attempt to refer to the (nonexistent) present King of France. (Strawson, 1950: 327) Unlike other false statements such as, the present Prime Minster of England is female, which is defective as a consequence of the speaker incorrectly referring to Gordon Brown as female, (1) is defective since the speaker has failed in his attempt to identify a referring subject and as such it should be disregarded as spurious use (Strawson, 1950:327) rather than considered false. (Lycan, 2008: 20) Strawson further develops his objection by demonstrating that it is the grammatical subject of the sentence that refers to the referent whilst it is the predicate that attributes a characteristic to the referent. However when reference fails it is inconceivable to attribute something to which we cannot refer and as such no attribution take place and therefore the statement cannot hold a truth value. (Cohen, 2008:3) Unlike sentences akin the present Prime Minister of England is female (1) does not attribute anything to the king of France since he does not exist. Consequently Strawson takes up a position which is strikingly similar to Frege who distinguishes between the referent and the sense of a sentence and as such it is possible for a sentence to express more than one sense, or furthermore a sense can be expressed by different sentences. As a result sentences akin to (1) which have a sense but no referent are meaningful in so much as you can understand them, however they lack the q uality of truthfulness. (Lemmon, 1966:94) Strawson perceives Russell as ignoring this distinction and as a consequence he misapprehends the identifying role of the grammatical subject between entailment and presupposition in that anyone who use the sentences (1) to make a statement implies that there is a present king of France. (Strawson, 1950:332) The notion of implies is equivalent to presuppose but it is in no way comparable to the formal logical notion of entails that Russell uses to state the existential conditions asserted by the definite article the that necessarily needs to be fulfilled in order for the statement to be true. On the contrary it is to imply in the special sense that the existential conditions are satisfied.(Cohen, 2008:3) If we use example (1) Russell would argue that The present king of France is bald is true if and only if There is a present king of France is true and vice versa, however Strawson contends that it is the case that The present King of France is bald only holds a truth value if and only if there exists a present king of France, if this condition is not met then the statement holds no truth value. So once more I draw the conclusion that referring to or mentioning a particular thing cannot be dissolved into any kind of assertion. To refer is not to assert, though you refer in order to go on to assert. (Strawson, 1950:335) It is in this that Caton (1959) realised that Strawson did not recognise the distinction between failing to refer to or to mention something and referring to or mention something (Caton, 1959: 540) in ordinary language usage and as such it is apparent that Strawson has not actually accounted for the way in which we use refer in ordinary language. In other words, when using language we use it the same regardless of whether we are referring to something which exists or does not exist. (Caton, 1959:540) Consequently, it is only possible to use a sentence or expression thinking it refers even though it does not, and surely even if one did use a non referring expression without intention surely it would appear as if one has referred? Consequently it appears as if it is not that the speaker fails to refer but rather he uses a sentence or expression with the intention of referring to something he believes to exist but actually does not. (Caton, 1954:542) The implication of this position is that when a speaker utters a statement which intends to refer to an existing thing but fails, the speaker will be corrected by someone as there is no existing king of France. It is just not substantive of our approach to ordinary use of language to suggest that a speaker could use a referring expression successfully or conversely unsuccessfully and furthermore is it not the case that when we utter a sentence, unless we are consciously aware that it is factious, that we would believe that what we are referring to is successful given the linguistic and social conventions that govern our language and thought? Strawson argues that this failure of reference could occur, however given the account above how often would a speaker refer to something believing it exists when it does not, surely even if this was the case, given our social pedigree for awareness, it would be so rare that surely it would be absurd to accept it as a foundation to a critique?(Caton, 1954:543) Furthermore if Straws on argues that his proposal is less problematic to ordinary language then surely the counterexamples used need be to be more inclined to towards our natural intentions of speech, and as such it seems that a Gricean distinction between intended and expressed propositions could almost accommodate for Russells Theory of Descriptions in this instance in that the meaning of the sentences that appear object-dependant studied by Russell are incomplete without the context of use that Grice studied through speaker-meaning. (Ramachandran, 1993:1) If we consider the example; (3)The book case is filled with DVDs Strawson uses awkward example such as (3), which expresses that there is one and only one bookcase and it is filled with DVDs when applied to Russells analysis, to devalue Russells theories but Neale (1990) developed ideas from Grice and argued that if (3) is applied to the notion of restricted quantification the absurd illusion disappears. That is the domain over which we take the quantifier is adequately altered and consequently the quantifier silently recognises the context of the speech act. Whilst this is by no means a solution it is evident that when a sentence such as (3) is used a contemporary, Russellian could argue that it is in its use that the statement is completed and furthermore this is through the restriction of quantification.(Lycan, 2008:22)I admit that there is still an ambiguity and awkwardness about the non-existent reference however it has become apparent that in ordinary language it would highly unlikely that a speaker would use (1) with the intention of referr ing but could it be as a condition of the non-intention of the speaker that the uncomfortable nature of truth arises? (Ramachandran, 1993:4) Keith Donnellan (1966) attempts to offer a pragmatic approach to the problem by suggesting that both Strawson and Russell are incorrect in their analysis of definite descriptions by claiming that they both commit to the error that when nothing satisfies the condition of being the referent that the truth value of the sentence or use or the sentence is affected. (King, 1984:14)Donnellan argues that this is not the case but rather a speaker could use a non-referring expression to express a true sentence despite the grammatical subject being a non-referring expression and this misunderstanding occurs in virtue of neither Strawson nor Russell appreciating both the referential and the attributive use of a definite description as a consequence of not analysing the interpretation of a sentence on specific occasions of use in the specific context.(Lycan, 2008:24) If we consider the example; (4) The person who bought that Ferrari is rich Donnellan argues that that statement could be uttered twofold; It could refer to the fact that the Ferrari was  £300,000 and as such it must be the case that the person who purchased the vehicle was wealthy, this is known as the attributive use of the description. It could also refer to Henry the man who purchased the vehicle after haggling the price down to  £250 000, this is known as the referential use of the description. Russells theory is an application of the attributive use of definite description in speech acts, whilst Strawsons argument against Russell is on the basis of him not recognising the referential role of definite descriptions, however Strawson neglects the attributive use and as such his theory is similarly problematic. (Cohen, 2008:2) Furthermore, the distinction between the referential use and the attributive use runs deeper, in that the truth values are different given there being nothing that satisfies the condition of being the referent in a use of a sentence as a direct consequence of the presuppositions in each case being different. In the case of the attributive use the assertion misfires as a result of their being nothing to satisfy the condition of the referent however in the referential sense it may still have a truth value given that the object that is being referred to may satisfy the description given and if it does not then the given speech act is misleading. As a result Donnellan demonstrates that out of context it is ludicrous to try and determine what a definite description is, because it is context dependant in that within a particular speech act it could be used for either referential or attributive use and as a consequence both Strawson and Russells arguments are deficient in some capacity. (Cohen, 2008:3) However, given that the question at hand is whether Strawsons critique has deeper philosophical implications for Russells theory, and that we have accepted that both theories are not sufficient if we accept Donnellans theory then could it be the case that given that Strawsons theory is not practical for ordinary language, is it worth accepting in light of the detrimental effect it has on the analysis of language given the arise of truth gaps? Subsequently by accepting Strawsons thesis on the non truth value of non-referring expression then we permit for these truth value gaps, whereby certain sentences cannot be subject to logical analysis because they lack a truth value. (Quine, 1953: 439) By analysing sentences under the scrutiny of formal logic there is the possibility of refraining from ambiguity because all sentences are ascribed a truth value through the proposition expressed by their existential logic properties. (Lemmon, 1966: 105) According to E.J Lemmon (1966) this is only sufficient if logic is not liable to imitate ordinary language to the effect that it manifests itself in the same manner. As Russell seemed to acknowledge this is not the case and in fact the role of logic is to control language under conditions where ordinary language cannot be regulated and therefore surely it is a given that it does not necessarily accurately represent ordinary language in every respect? Besides is it harmful to accept a situation whereby the logician is aware of the problem of non-referring descriptions, would it not be adequate to merely realise this and maintain the logical structure which has been demonstrated as efficient and practical? As far as the difficulty demonstrated by Strawson in this instance it only holds if and only if Russells intention was for the logical proposition to mimic ordinary language. (Lemmon, 1966:107) In conclusion I would argue that whilst neither Strawson nor Russells argument provides a wholly adequate account of definite descriptions, if we evaluate the purpose of each theory they are of differing successes. Russell provides a scientific approach to analysing definite descriptions which generally provides a sufficient measure for reference whilst still encompassing difficulties. Strawson on the other hand attempts to offer an improved theory in regard to ordinary language use however, the counterexamples he provides are not intuitive uses of language. Furthermore the implication is that it is unlikely that such occurrences would occur intentionally and as a consequence the position Strawson takes up is not philosophically practical given the arise of truth gaps when accepting his theory. Word count (3032 exclusive of reference and quotations)

Argument for Making Hemp Growth Legal Essay example -- Argumentative

Argument for Making Hemp Growth Legal There is vast history of hemp as an agricultural crop in the United States. The crop was grown extensively until its ban in 1937. Prior to the ban on hemp the plant was one of the biggest cash crops of the Southern United States. For instance in Kentucky hemp was the biggest cash crop up until 1915. In these southern states hemp was used as a rotation crop between tobacco crops as well as other crops. Thomas Jefferson even wrote in his own writings that, â€Å"Hemp is of first necessity to the wealth and protection of the country.† Jefferson's theories can offer thought on the hemp ban being lifted during World War II because the crop was needed for industrial products. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) produced a film called â€Å"Hemp for Victory† to promote farmers to grow hemp in order to supply a need for rope and clothing in 1942 for the war. The promotion of hemp led to 400,000 acres â€Å"grown† into production all over the United States proving that the crop is profitable to farmers. But, as soon as WWII ended hemp went back to the ban of 1937. The Marijuana Tax Act lead to any plant with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) outlawed to production. THC is the reason that hemp is no longer available to American farmers. The chemical THC in marijuana makes people â€Å"high† when it is smoked. The levels of THC in hemp are so minuet (one percent) that the plant can not be used as a hallucinogen. In order for a plant, such as marijuana, to work as a hallucinogen it must contain at the least four percent THC. When you hear the word hemp what is your first thought? If it is marijuana then you are mistaken. Hemp, the plant that is grown for agricultural and indu... ...om 5.) http://equalrights4all.us/CMS/index.php Works Cited Alden, Dave M., Phillip W. Gay, and John R. Proops. "Industrial hemp's double dividend: a study for the USA." Ecologial Economics 25 (1998): 291-301. Bennett, Michael, and Randall T. Fortenbery. "Opportunities for Commercial Hemp Production." Review of Agricultural Economics 26 (n.d.): 97-117. Fryxell, Gerald E., Marinilka Kimbro, and Terri Mottershead. "The Boston Trading and Manufacturing Co. Ltd. (HK): Hemp,." Asian Case Research Journal 5 (2001): 203-226. 3 Mar. 2004 78175>. Hemp and Marijuana: Myths & Realities. Comp. Dr. David P. West. Vers. 1. 1994. University of Madison. 3 Mar. 2005 . Hightower, Jim. "High on Hemp ." Humanist 64 (2004): 4-6.

Killer Angels Essays -- essays research papers

Wars have been fought for many different reasons through the years, and that holds true for the American Civil War (1861-1865). In Michael Shaara’s Pulitzer Prize winning novel, The Killer Angels, the reasons for fighting the war are brought about through the officers and soldiers at a famous battle site of the Civil War, Gettysburg. Gettysburg was one of the most documented battles of the whole war. It took place over a span of three days and can be viewed as a turning point from Confederate prominence to Confederate demise. The Union and the Confederacy each had their own views as to why they were fighting the war. The propaganda pitch the Union gave was they were fighting to free the slaves. This was not true! It was said Southerners were fighting to preserve slavery. This is also a false statement. In fact, there were a substantial amount of generals in the Union army that owned slaves themselves. In addition the constitution protected slavery. If the true issue was to maintain slavery the South would not have seceded. There are many quotes from northern leaders that show clearly that the main purpose of the North was not the eradication of slavery, but subjugation of the southern people. Slavery was used to rally the northern population behind Abraham Lincoln’s war. It was an emotional issue, sure some Yankees joined and fought to â€Å"set men free†, but most were there to preserve the union. An interesting conflict of northern morals is discovered. The North is portrayed as wanting to set black men free, but they practiced economic slavery on the Southern states. The Civil Wa r was really more politically complex with regards to Abraham Lincoln and his Republican Party’s actions. The South fought this war as the Second American Revolution. The Northern states' politicians were aggressively attempting to implement a monarchial form of government, which was precisely what the early colonists had fought against in the American Revolution. The Northern states were taking advantage of their superior numbers in the federal government and were using their advantage to implement unfair tariffs against the South. Enormous amounts of money were taken from the South and funneled into the northern states. Most of the revenue taken from the Southern states was used to run government programs. This brought about the argument of â€Å"State’s Rights† and a weaker central gov... ...the reason why they fought. The citizen soldiers who fought for the Confederacy personified the best qualities of America. The preservation of liberty and freedom was the greatest motivating factor in the South’s decision to fight for independence. They resigned their bond to a government that they found increasingly abusing the constitution and the rights of the states for self-determination. The tenacity with which Confederate soldiers fought underscored their belief in the rights guaranteed by the constitution. These attributes are the underpinning of our democratic society and represent the foundation on which this nation was originally built. They did not seek to destroy the federal government, they chose to withdraw and form their own government that was to be truer to the original constitution. Basically Northerners fought to preserve the Union and Southerners fought for their rights as a separate nation. The Union was victorious in the American Civil War, but feelings of the Federal Government no t fulfilling its duties under the Constitution are still alive today. Wars will always be fought for different causes and that will always hold true with the wars of the future.